Spain and Devolution Research Paper Example

Spain and Devolution Research Paper Example Spain and Devolution Paper Spain and Devolution Paper Of the three states Spain has by far the most difficult regional problem; it has also in place the the most radical of the regionalising projects. Spains regional problem has two interrrelated dimensions: that of persuading the two principal unassimilated peripheries Catalonia and the Basque region to accept the state, and then drawing on the resources of these regions to support development in the other regions. These goals are contradictory and it has been a difficult balancing act. Insofar as it has been successful and its ultimate success is still in uestion it is been due in considerable part to the commitment of the Spanish centre and the principal regions to ever wider European and international contacts (Gibbons, 1999, 35). The case of Catalonia is instructive. In the past thirty years, Catalan economic development has gone hand in hand with cultural nationalism, increasing linkages with the EU and with the wider world. The Catalan language has achieved predominance in public life in the region, in education, and in the communications media. The regions economic success and Barcelonas restige as a major European city give the Catalan government a prominence on the European stage and extra clout in negotiations with the centre. Catalonias increased external orientation is welcomed, not simply for the economic and cultural benefits it brings, but because it lessens the linkages with the Castillian centre. The extent to which Catalan nationalism is now content with its status as a nation-without-a-state (Keating, 1996) or the extent to which it is moving towards greater independence perhaps, at least initially, within a federal structure s a matter of some debate among scholars. What is clear, however, is that the increasing political freedom of the region, its increased prosperity and the reinforcement of Catalan identity has not overcome its ambivalence about being part of the Spanish state. One expression of this is resentment of the level of Catalan financial transfers to the central exchequer. This resentment is all the greater when it compares its fiscal powers with those of the Basque country. The challenge which such a high level of regionalisation has posed to the Spanish state, and deolgically to those strands of political opinion which believe in the essential unity of Spain, is considerable. In Catalonia the central state has effectively lost the cultural initiative and the re-establishment of Catalan as the first language has deepened the extent to which it is a place apart. At the same time autonomisation has not brought an end to violent Basque separatism. There are conflicts between centre and region about the extent of the regional powers the Spanish state, for example, has repeatedly challenged Basque industrial policy in he European Court of Justice (Loyer, 1999). There is tension around matters of protocol, for example welcoming of international statesmen, visits abroad, which have seemed to the state to be taking over the proper role of the sovereign state (Basset, 1998). Finally, there is competition between the regions around the extent of their powers which produces a dynamic towards ever greater autonomisation Catalonia looks for equivalent financial autonomy to the Basque country, and Andalucia will accept no less autonomy than Catalonia, and so on. At the same time the pace of development in the other regions remains slow. Further evidence that devolution becomes more popular with the passage of time is provided by the Spanish experience. As in Britain in the 1990s, the strong demands for autonomy in some Spanish regions in the late 1970s were not paralleled in the rest of the country, where there was no clear support for devolution. Yet, by 1996, opinion polls suggested that three-quarters of Spaniards felt either that the existing degree of autonomy granted to the regions should be maintained or enhanced. Furthermore, these responses appear to be underpinned by a strong degree of identification with the respective autonomous communities. In the same opinion poll just over two-thirds of respondents reported either that they identified only with their autonomous community or as much with their autonomous community as they did with Spain. In Spain, a complex sharing of functions between the national, regional and local levels of government has evolved since the late 1970s. Figure 3 shows that central government in Spain has exclusive powers over areas such as defence and macro-economic management but that it shares responsibility for many functions with the autonomous communities, including housing, social welfare and economic development. Similarly, local government is charged with functions such as land-use planning and community safety while also sharing responsibility with the autonomous communities in a number of areas, such as local transport and sports and leisure facilities. European experience therefore suggests that any decision regarding the powers to be devolved to regions is not simply a one-off re-allocation of functions between tiers of government. Rather, devolution triggers a dynamic process of bargaining between regional and national government over responsibilities and resources. Aside from the tendency for this to result in regions acquiring more functions, the other clear message to emerge is regional authorities, once established, will push strongly for greater autonomy, particularly in the management of their financial affairs. In Italy the regions lobbied strongly for tax-raising powers from 1983, eventually securing limited powers in this area in 1990. Similarly, the Spanish autonomous communities have claimed a rising share of income tax revenues, with some regions securing a greater degree of financial autonomy from the centre than others: in Catalonia 32 per cent of public expenditure is now controlled by the regional government, compared to an average of 25 per cent in Spain as a whole. Indeed, of the cases considered at the conference, only the Spanish regions could make any reasonable claim to being significant contributors to regional economic performance since they do at least share significant responsibility for economic development with central government. However, time-series data on economic performance in Spain suggest that regional economic disparities have only narrowed marginally over the past 15-20 years. Whether this modest decrease in regional disparity can be attributed specifically to the activities of regional governments, rather than, say, to national economic policy or the beneficial impact of Spanish membership of the EU, remains an open question. The staggered emergence of regionalism in the UK does have something of a parallel in the Spanish case. Following the transition to a democratic regime in the late 1970s, the new Spanish constitution provided for twin-track devolution. Under this framework, regions with strong nationalist claims for devolution were allowed to move quickly towards such arrangements. Thus, Catalonia and the Basque Country introduced regional government in 1979, followed in 1981 by Galicia and, largely on political grounds, Andalusia. The remaining 13 autonomous communities were then introduced in 1982-83. The principle of a two-speed process of devolution has since been maintained, with subsequent bargaining between central government and individual autonomous communities enabling regional governments in areas such as Catalonia and the Basque Country to take greater control over their own affairs. While the Spanish case suggests that asymmetric devolution is an option for the UK, it leaves open the question of what might happen if the English regions fail to embrace regional government. Asymmetric devolution would seem to be an appropriate response to the problem that there are different levels of aspiration to self-government. However, experience in Spain also implies that a staggered process of devolution will need to be supported by national co-ordination mechanisms which ensure that regions slow to move towards regional autonomy are not disadvantaged and are encouraged to be part of a consensus on how devolution should proceed.

6 Unusual Online Certificate Programs

6 Unusual Online Certificate Programs So, you’re not interested in an online MBA. You’d prefer to lead a rally, write a memoir, or brew the perfect craft beer? Never fear. Several colleges offer online certificate programs that appeal less to sharp-suited business people and more to the garden-growing, media-sharing, beer-brewing types. Interested? Take a look at these unique distance education programs: The Business of Craft Brewing Online Certificate (Portland State University) Through this four-course series, â€Å"industry specialists† teach students everything they need to know to start up and run a successful craft brewery. Courses include â€Å"Basic Business for Craft Beverages,† â€Å"Craft Beverage Business Management,† â€Å"Strategic Craft Beverage Marketing,† and â€Å"Finance and Accounting for the Craft Brewery.† Students are also invited to fly out to Portland to take part in the optional â€Å"Craft Beverage Immersion Excursion,† spending three days meeting with brewery owners, tasting Portland beers, and touring the Oregon beer empire. Cheers. Certificate in Organic Agriculture (University of Washington) If you have a green thumb and a fondness for organic food, the University of Washington Certificate in Organic Agriculture might be for you. The college touts this 18-credit program as a good fit for â€Å"those wanting to pursue a career in organic agriculture, anyone interested in beginning a community supported agriculture (CSA) enterprise, [and] home gardeners.† As a student, you’ll take online courses such as â€Å"Organic Gardening and Farming,† â€Å"Agriculture, Environment, and Community,† and â€Å"Food Safety and Quality.†Ã‚   You’ll also be required to complete an internship, which can be done by volunteering through a local organic farm, organic certifying agency, or organic business. Sustainability Certificate (Harvard Extension School) If you want to promote a sustainability in your community or business, Harvard’s Sustainability Certificate provides instruction from world-class thinkers. Students in this program take five courses. â€Å"Knowledge Set† courses such as â€Å"Energy and the Environment,† â€Å"Strategies for Sustainability Management,† and â€Å"Sustainable Business and Technology,† provide students with a common foundation of understanding. â€Å"Skill Set† courses such as â€Å"Catalyzing Change: Sustainability Leadership for the Twenty-First Century† and â€Å"Introduction to Sustainable Buildings,† help students take action. It’s also important to note that, although this certificate is coming from an ivy-league school, it is an open-access program. Anyone can simply start taking courses towards certificate completion without the need to apply. New Urbanism Online Certificate (Miami School of Architecture) Those with a passion for cities community building may be interested in the New Urbanism Online Certificate. Students earning the certificate are prepared to take the Congress for New Urbanism accreditation exam. (Although you should also be aware that the exam can be taken without the certificate). The New Urbanism certificate is self-paced and takes students through the basics of creating walkable, sustainable places. Course units include: â€Å"A Crisis of Place and the Alternative of the New Urbanism,† â€Å"Ecology Built Legacy,† â€Å"Architecture, Local Culture, and Community Identity,† â€Å"Green Building and Historic Preservation,† and â€Å"Implementing New Urbanism.† Creative Nonfiction Writing Online Certificate (UCLA Extension Program) If you’re serious about writing that best-selling memoir, personal essay, or political history, take a look at this UCLA creative non-fiction program. You’ll focus most of your 36 credits on intensive creative non-fiction instruction. You’ll also have the opportunity to choose from electives in poetry, playwriting, and fiction. Best of all, students that complete the coursework are given a consultation with a UCLA Writer’s Program instructor, detailed notes, and an in-person or phone critique session. Certificate in Community Organizing (Empire State College) What would you like to see change in your community? If you have a quick answer to that question but don’t know how to make it happen, consider earning a Certificate in Community Organizing. Empire State’s program arms students with knowledge about justice, power dynamics, and navigating government environments. It aims to help learners develop a skill set that can be applied to create lasting change in their communities. This 12-credit program includes courses such as â€Å"Advocacy in State and Community-Level Government,† â€Å"Race, Gender, and Class in U.S. Public Policy,† and â€Å"Human Service Policy.† To complete the certificate, students are required to apply their learning by working with real communities while taking the capstone â€Å"Community Organizing† course. Free Learning Alternatives If youd rather not jump into a major time commitment and write a big check just yet, take a look at these less formal free online classes. Youll find options for a wide array of subjects including photography, guitar, and writing.

The assignment should consist of one review article on the latest Literature

The assignment should consist of one article on the latest developments on the pathophysiology of a named disease. (Drug treatments for Alzherimers Disease) - Literature review Example Developing management plans for the disease has been a daunting task that is still being researched on. It has been established that the disease cannot be cured but it can be managed to prevent continued degeneration. Anticholinergic drugs were used at that time with the use levodopa being adopted later. This was done after the discovery of dopaminergic deficits in the pathophysiology of the disease. The disease is quite common and affects the nervous system with patients having symptoms such as tremor, slowness in movement, rigidity and instability. It’s a neurodegenerative disorder and research shows that it affects about one per cent of the population from the age of seventy (Savitt, Dawson & Ted, 2006). The greatest development in the treatment of PD was the development of ways to correct dopamine deficiency which is greatly associated with the disease. Halting disease progression has been the greatest nightmare in science and medicine as the medical therapy used is just used to provide temporary relief and not a long term solution for the disease. The need, to do this research on Parkinson’s disease, was necessitated by the fact it is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder (Barbara & Lang, 2014). There are various factors associated with the onset of the disease with various genetic and environmental factors being thought to have an interaction that results to the disease (Bekris, Mata & Zabetian, 2010). Familial Parkinsonism which is detected when patients show symptoms such as rigidity, tremor and slowness in movement has been shown to be caused by mutation in six genes which include SNCA, ATP13A2, PINK1, DJ1, PRKN and LRRK2 (Bekris, Mata & Zabetian, 2010). Other factors, which have been seen as predisposing factors or leading to the disease, include variation in the MAPT, SNCA, and LRRK2. Putting the individual at a vulnerable position makes them to show the symptoms